Hacker Ethics and Morals

Common hacker ethics

Within the typology of hacking explored in this paper, a common set of underlying ethical foundations is prevalent across all hacker classes. They span across all forms of hacking along the illegal-to-legal dimension, even within the aforementioned and defined Computer Security Cracker class. According to Levy , the cornerstones of the common hacker ethic are:

• Sharing of knowledge
• Openness of information
• Decentralisation
• Free access to computers
• Mistrust of authority
• World improvement

Private ownership

The concept of claimed rights to private property ownership and material goods can be traced to John Locke’s theory of property in his Two Treatises of Government . Locke argues that property is a natural right and is derived from ones effort of labour. If you expend labour to create a good or property to benefit human society, then you have property rights over it. Adam Smith later went further to claim that private property is now an implicit given and it is the invisible hand that brings the marketplace into equilibrium through self interested gains that ultimately benefit society by keeping prices low while building incentives for a broad range of goods and services . The economic system itself fits the interests of the capital property owners. Hackers disrupt the invisible hand by expending human labour on top of labour generated by firms, not for property ownership and monetary value exchange, but for intrinsic benefits and motivations to optimise and explore unrealised potential within a technology. The marketplace demands continuous cyclical consumption to grow, by selling employee labour effort to the employer and the employer selling resultant products and services back to the consumer. The market does not demand the best product possible in the long term for it is inferior the moment it is produced and has a limited life cycle. Hackers disrupt the cycle by disregarding private property claims and expending human labour but without private property claims. The result is intended disruption via the extension of intrinsic and planned obsolescence of consumer artefact timelines (put in place by firms to maximise returns) ultimately impacting the efficiency of consumption’s ability to drive growth in economies. Hackers pose a problem not only to firms competing on the basis of the creation of value through private property but also to economic growth as a whole.

Amidst popular misconceptions about actual hacker (not cracker) activities and in order to understand the emergence of the hacker mentality as a whole, it is vital to understand hacker attitudes and culture mind set towards ownership and private property, as they span-across and underpin a broad range of external user innovation activities. Some of these can be traced back to abstractions to the idea of private ownership discussed in the book: A Hacker Manifesto .

Key to the hacker mentality is the idea of private ownership of information. It is claimed that “information wants to be free but everywhere it is in chains,” though the use of IP regimes, patents and copyright that permit the legal rights and means of extracting value by its owners. Referring to Marx, Wark discusses modes of production, distribution and consumption that create deprivation in order to maintain unequal social relations through the application of economics . The hacker ethic at an extreme and abstract level is refuting any ownership claims to private property over and above nature itself.

In the 1970’s an electronics engineer called John Draper discovered that a free toy whistle packaged with popular children’s cereal Cap’n Crunch could easily be modified to reproduce the 2600-hertz frequency used by AT&T for long distance telephone calling. This allowed anyone with hacked whistle to place free anonymous long distance phone calls anywhere in the World using untraceable toll-free-800 calls. Draper went on to build a phreaking tool called the blue box and featured in Esquire magazine in 1971. Inspired by the article, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak entered into production of digital blue boxes, raising $6000 to help start up Apple Computers. Blue box devices allowed teenagers (for a hundred dollars) to gain total control of hundreds of billions of dollars of international telephony infrastructure, exchanges, routing computers and satellites. For hackers this meant something much more than simply making free calls around the World. It stirred-up a debate about publically tax-funded projects such as ARPANET (later to become the Internet) and public telephone infrastructures belonging to the people who funded them. In this way hackers felt that such systems were not a proprietary owned asset and should be free for exploration, learning, improvement and innovation of any kind or source provided you were a legitimate expert. Governments and legal systems were in effect ‘legitimately’ abstracting ownership away from the people whilst conflicting with rising hacker classes, culture and ethics. Blue boxes were the means to emancipate the technologies and allow for unrestricted systems exploration and learning to take place. Draper stated his intentions were not simply to make free calls but ‘...to show Ma Bell how good I am. I don't want to screw her, I want to work for her. I want to do good for her. I want to help her get rid of her flaws and become perfect. That's my number-one goal in life now’ . Underlying motivations for hacking are again, not about theft of intellectual, but about unrestricted generative exploration of a given technology in order to improve it for the benefit of all.

Further understanding of the idea of abstraction of nature can be found in the process of permanently taking and claiming ownership of groundwater from a natural source, known as abstraction of water. Abstraction in this sense refers to claiming and taking private ownership of a naturally occurring resource; abstracting it away from its naturally created, un-ownable state, to private ownership as a valuable and tradable market commodity, simply by claiming ownership in the act of assuming claimant rights over it. For hackers and the hacker ethic, information is abstracted in this same way. Merely claiming intellectual property or ownership, through legal systems, intellectual property regimes or otherwise do not give adequate justification for the abstraction to occur in the first place, and it is the activities of hackers who restore ownership to its freely occurring, natural ownership free state. The abstraction and privatisation of property is seen as an institutionalised legal hack over generations of claimants, from peasants to farmers to workers to capitalists to vectoralists; the progression of ownership from land (pastoralist) to capital (capitalist) to information (vectoralist).

Artefact ownership and private property are seen as an abstraction of natural and physical spaces labelled as real estate and patent portfolios. The abstraction of one’s labour time needed to convert its produce into surplus value via the paid wage. In the information age, the hack is an abstraction of labour time into an information surplus and to convert this surplus value into revenue, products and services to be bought and sold.

From a critical lens, in the material world economics is used to allocate limited resources to unlimited demands, moderated by scarcity of commodities and resources in order to maintain unequal social relations. However in the digital age, information is not scarce but entirely abundant and free to exchange without incurring significant transaction costs. It can be sent, received and duplicated at negligible cost. Furthermore (and more critically), information once free from ownership is nonrivalrous. Its possession does not create the same economic scarcity, permitting freedom from true private and exclusive ownership. Hackers seek to make all information ownership-free in this regard through the organisation of free-collective expression and to serve the people directly, rather than by merely serving the ruling vectoralist classes. For hackers information cannot and should not be commodified as a resource.

The hacker in essence is someone engaged in a struggle against the expropriation of value by the vectoralist class via the control and extraction of surplus from the productive classes. The hacker class is a producer of new abstractions within a world of abstractions to serve the people directly and independent of the ruling classes. The more information is free, the more the ruling classes depend upon the enforcement of law to secure its rent, profit and margin; making law and legal frameworks the key instrument in preserving power.

Hackers fundamentally seek to free knowledge from imposed economic scarcity by the ruling classes, to the point where “the free production of knowledge itself becomes the knowledge of free producers” (Wark 2004, p. 40). Hackers simply aim to place the means of producing and creating value in the hands of productive classes. By the act of hacking, scarcity is overcome (or circumvented by other means) and releases the surplus of productivity, owned by the ruling classes, back into the hands of the producers. At this instant, the working classes no longer have to re-consume their own abstracted labour efforts. Ruling classes attempting to commodify the resultant generativity of a hack (as it represents a further market opportunity to extract margins from a scarce resource), but militarised hacker ethics coordinated and organised by digital technologies presents a challenge for would-be appropriators as the underlying characteristics of the technologies themselves built, developed and sold by the economic systems would fundamentally challenge any firm’s ability to achieve value generation in this way.

References

• Levy, S. (1984). Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, Penguin.
• Locke, J. (1689). Two Treatises of Government: In the Former, The False Principles and Foundation of Sir Robert Filmer, And His Followers, are Detected and Overthrown. The Latter is an Essay concerning The True Original, Extent, and End of Civil-Government.
• Smith, A. (1776). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. London.
• Wark, M. (2004). A Hacker Manifesto. Cambridge, Harvard College.
• Marx, K. (1848) The Communist Manifesto.
• Rosenbaum, R. (1971). Secrets of the Little Blue Box. Esquire: 117-226.
• Levy, S. (1984). Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, Penguin.
• Levy, S. (1984). Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, Penguin.